Greece: Sea Sun & Culture

Greece: Sea Sun & Culture, originally uploaded by brexians election mode is ON!.

Greece was the first area in Europe where advanced early civilizations emerged, beginning with the Minoan civilization in Crete and then the Mycenean civilization on the mainland.

Later, city-states emerged across the Greek peninsula and spread to the shores of Black Sea, South Italy and Asia Minor reaching great levels of prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, expressed in architecture, drama, science and philosophy, and nurtured in Athens under a democratic environment.

Athens and Sparta led the way in repelling the Persian Empire in a series of battles.

Both were later overshadowed by Thebes and eventually Macedon, with the latter under the guidance of Alexander the Great uniting and leading the Greek world to victory over the Persians, to presage the Hellenistic era, itself brought only partially to a close two centuries later with the establishment of Roman rule over Greek lands in 146 BC.

Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch, Seleucia and the many other new Hellenistic cities in Asia and Africa founded in Alexander's wake.

The subsequent mixture of Roman and Hellenic cultures took form in the establishment of the Byzantine Empire in 330 AD around Constantinople, which remained a major cultural and military power for the next 1,123 years, until its fall at the hands of Ottomans in 1453.

On the eve of the Ottoman era much of the Greek intelligentsia migrated to the Italian territories and much of non-Ottoman occupied Europe, playing a significant role in the Western European Renaissance through the transferring of works of Ancient Greeks to Western Europe.
Nevertheless, the Ottoman millet system contributed to the cohesion of the Orthodox Greeks by segregating the various peoples within the Ottoman Empire based on religion, as the latter played an integral role in the formation of modern Greek identity.
After the Greek War of Independence, successfully fought against the Ottoman Empire from 1821 to 1829, the nascent Greek state was finally recognized under the London Protocol. In 1827, Ioannis Kapodistrias, from Ionian Islands, was chosen as the first governor of the new Republic.

However, following his assassination, the Great Powers installed a monarchy under Otto, of the Bavarian House of Wittelsbach. In 1843, an uprising forced the King to grant a constitution and a representative assembly.

Due to his unimpaired authoritarian rule, he was eventually dethroned in 1863 and replaced by Prince Vilhelm (William) of Denmark, who took the name George I and brought with him the Ionian Islands as a coronation gift from Britain. In 1877, Charilaos Trikoupis, who is attributed with the significant improvement of the country's infrastructure, curbed the power of the monarchy to interfere in the assembly by issuing the rule of vote of confidence to any potential prime minister.

As a result of the Balkan Wars, Greece successfully increased the extent of her territory and population, a challenging context both socially and economically. In the following years, the struggle between King Constantine I and charismatic Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos over the country's foreign policy on the eve of World War I dominated the country's political scene, and divided the country into two opposed groups.

In the aftermath of WWI, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war which resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne.

According to various sources, several hundred thousand Pontic Greeks died during this period.
Instability and successive coups d'état marked the following era, which was overshadowed by the massive task of incorporating 1.5 million Greek refugees from Asia Minor into Greek society.
The Greek population in Istanbul had shrunk from 300,000 at the turn of the century to around 3,000 in the city today.

On 28 October 1940 Fascist Italy demanded the surrender of Greece, but Greek dictator Ioannis Metaxas refused and in the following Greco-Italian War, Greece repelled Italian forces into Albania, giving the Allies their first victory over Axis forces on land. The country would eventually fall to urgently dispatched German forces during the Battle of Greece.

The German occupiers nevertheless met serious challenges from the Greek Resistance. Over 100,000 civilians died from starvation during the winter of 1941–42. In 1943 virtually the entire Jewish population was deported to Nazi extermination camps.

After liberation, Greece experienced a bitter civil war between Royalist and Communist forces, which led to economic devastation and severe social tensions between its Rightists and largely Communist Leftists for the next 30 years.

The next 20 years were characterized by marginalisation of the left in the political and social spheres but also by a significant economic growth, propelled in part by the Marshall Plan.

In 1965, a period of political turbulence led to a coup d’etat on 21 April 1967 by the US-backed Regime of the Colonels. On November 1973 the Athens Polytechnic Uprising sent shock waves across the regime, and a counter-coup established Brigadier Dimitrios Ioannides as dictator.

On 20 July 1974, as Turkey invaded the island of Cyprus, the regime collapsed.
Former premier Constantine Karamanlis was invited back from Paris where he had lived in self-exile since 1963, marking the beginning of the Metapolitefsi era. On the 14 August 1974 Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus.

In 1975 a democratic republican constitution was activated and the monarchy abolished by a referendum held that same year.

Meanwhile, Andreas Papandreou founded the Panhellenic Socialist Party, or PASOK, in response to Constantine Karamanlis' New Democracy party, with the two political formations dominating Greek political affairs in the ensuing decades. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.

Relations with neighbouring Turkey have improved substantially over the last decade, since successive earthquakes hit both nations in the summer of 1999 (see Greece-Turkey earthquake diplomacy), and today Athens is an active supporter of Turkey's bid for EU membership.

Greece became the tenth member of the European Union on 1 January 1981, and ever since the nation has experienced a remarkable and sustained economic growth. Widespread investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure, as well as funds from the European Union and growing revenues from tourism, shipping and a fast growing service sector have raised the country's standard of living to unprecedented levels.

The country adopted the Euro in 2001 and successfully organised the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens.

"A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step." -- Lao Tzu
Copyright © Demetrios the Traveler






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cultural Cuba

"A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step." -- Lao Tzu
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fly me to the moon ....STS 128 Launch replays

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City Of Cranes - London, UK

August 2009 A city symphony revealing the invisible life of a city, through the eyes of crane drivers working above. London's secret routines and relentless development is captured in stunning HD

"A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step." -- Lao Tzu
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Tennessee Culinary

"A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step." -- Lao Tzu
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Caerphilly Castle

Caerphilly Castle, originally uploaded by John the Neath.

It is the largest castle in Wales and the second largest in Britain after Windsor Castle. Built mainly between 1268 and 1271, it is an early example of a concentric castle.

The castle is being renovated, hence the scaffolding and you can see how one of the towers has been cleaned up

The pic was shot in RAW and processed in Photoshop Camera Raw to produce two files, one for the sky and one for the castle. Layers and masking were then used in CS3 with various tweaks using adjustment layers

"A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step." -- Lao Tzu
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Capitol Reflections--Summer

Capitol Reflections--Summer, originally uploaded by Kurlylox1 (very busy!).

Although not as well known as the reflecting pool at the foot of the West Front of the U.S. Capitol, this pool on the north side of the Capitol has the added beauty of a fountain in summer. The fountain has the unromantic name, "The Senate Garage Fountain," because it sits on top of the underground garage for the Senate. The fountain lights change from rose to blue to green. I took this photo during the "blue hour" on a recent perfect summer evening. It forms a nice contrast to the picture of the Capitol and its reflection in the frozen West Front reflecting pool that I took the weekend before inauguration day this past January.

"A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step." -- Lao Tzu
Copyright © Demetrios the Traveler

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Paris Trocadero, The Lady and the Tower

The Lady and the Tower, originally uploaded by Kurlylox1 (very busy!).

The Trocadéro, site of the Palais de Chaillot, is an area of Paris, France, in the 16th arrondissement, across the Seine from the Eiffel Tower. The hill of the Trocadéro is the hill of Chaillot, a former village.

Trocadero is an island inside the Bay of Cadiz, in the South of Spain, bordering the Spanish mainland. Nowadays, it is conected to Cadiz by the bridge that goes across the bay. Originally, the name trocadero refers to an emporium or place of trade.

In the Battle of Trocadero, the fortified position on the Cádiz was captured on August 31, 1823, by French forces led by the Duc d'Angoulême, son of the future king, Charles X, in a battle against the Spanish army that took place in the island of Trocadero. The goal of the French invasion of Spain limited to intervening against the Spanish liberals who were rebelling against the autocracy of Ferdinand VII. Trocadero,unfortunately, restored the autocratic Spanish Bourbon Ferdinand VII to the throne of Spain, in an action that defined the Restoration.

Today that square is officially named Place du Trocadéro et du 11 Novembre, although it is usually simply called the Place du Trocadéro.

Five avenues come from the Trocadéro: the avenue Henri-Martin which goes to the porte de la Muette and passes in front of the lycée Janson de Sailly (Janson de Sailly secondary school); the avenue Paul Doumer which goes to the Muette; the avenue d'Eylau which goes to the place of Mexico; the avenue Kléber which goes to the place de l'Etoile; and the avenue d'Iéna which goes to the musée Guimet. There is a big municipal library near the Trocadéro's square. The high retaining walls of the Trocadero cemetery were constructed by the French industrialist François Coignet.

useful links:

• Photos of Trocadero in Paris
• View and description of the Trocadéro
• Images of the old Palais du Trocadéro
• Images of the Palais de Chaillot
• The Palais de Chaillot while it was being renovated
• Commemorative stone dedication on Trocadéro Human Rights Plaza, October 17, 1987
• Virtual tour 360 degrees in fullscreen. Use your mouse to turn around !
• France, Paris, Trocadéro Virtual tour with map and compass effect by Tolomeus

"A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step." -- Lao Tzu
Copyright © Demetrios the Traveler





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tourists a fine video, a piece of art

The Tourists (2007) from Animalcolm on Vimeo.
Another transient day at the beach......

In this animated short Malcolm Sutherland lovingly pokes fun at the transient yet timeless life of the beach tourist. Animated ink on paper, made in 2007.

"A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step." -- Lao Tzu
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Delhi,Qûtb Minâr

Delhi - 28-07-2009 - Qûtb Minâr - 17h22, originally uploaded by Panoramas.

The Qutab Minar (also spelled Qutb or Qutub, Urdu: قطب منار), a tower in Delhi, India, is the world's tallest brick minaret. It is situated in the Qutb complex, amidst the ruins of ancient Jain temples which were destroyed and their stones used to build the Qutb complex and minar. Construction commenced in 1193 under the orders of India's first Muslim ruler Qutb-ud-din Aibak, and the topmost storey of the minaret was completed in 1386 by Firuz Shah Tughluq. The Qutb Minar is notable for being one of the earliest and most prominent examples of Indo-Islamic architecture.

It is surrounded by several other ancient and medieval structures and ruins, collectively known as Qutb complex. The complex is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Delhi, and was also India's most visited monument in 2006, as it attracted 38.95 lakh visitors, even more than the Taj Mahal, which drew about 25.4 lakh visitors.

The Qutab Minar is 72.5 metres (238 ft) tall with 379 steps leading to the top. The diameter of the base is 14.3 meters wide while the top floor measures 2.75 meters in diameter. Surrounding the building are many fine examples of Indian artwork from the time it was built in 1193. A second tower was in construction and planned to be taller than the Qutb Minar itself. Its construction ended abruptly when it was about 12 meters tall.The name of this tower is given as Alau Minar and construction of recent studies shows that this structure has been tilted in one direction. It is made of red sandstone all the way except for two stories at the top. This part is of white marble and was made by Firoz Shah Tughlaq. He had decided to put a more prominent finish to the magnificent minar.

Inspired by the Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan and wishing to surpass it, Qutbuddin Aibak, the first Muslim ruler of Delhi, commenced construction of the Qutb Minar in 1193, but could only complete its base. His successor, Iltutmish, added three more stories and, in 1386, Firuz Shah Tughluq constructed the fifth and the last story. The development of architectural styles from Aibak to Tughluq are quite evident in the minaret. Like earlier towers erected by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in Afghanistan, the Qutb Minar comprises several superposed flanged and cylindrical shafts, separated by balconies carried onMuqarnas corbels. The minaret is made of fluted red sandstone covered with intricate carvings and verses from the Qur'an. The Qutb Minar is itself built on the ruins of the Lal Kot, the Red Citadel in the city of Dhillika, the capital of the Tomars and the Chauhans, the last Hindu rulers of Delhi. The complex initially housed 27 ancient Jain temples which were destroyed and their debris used to build the Qutb minar. One engraving on the Qutb Minar reads, "Shri Vishwakarma prasade rachita" (Conceived with the grace of Vishwakarma), this is thought to have been engraved by the enslaved Hindu craftsmen who built the minar.

The purpose for building this monument has been variously speculated upon. It could take the usual role of a minaret, calling people for prayer in the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, the earliest extant mosque built by the Delhi Sultans. Other possibilities are a tower of victory, a monument signifying the might of Islam, or a watch tower for defense. Controversy also surrounds the origins for the name of the tower. Many historians believe that the Qutb Minar was named after the first Turkish sultan, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, but others contend that it was named in honour of Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, a saint fromTransoxiana who came to live in India and was greatly venerated by Iltutmish.

The nearby Iron Pillar is one of the world's foremost metallurgical curiosities, standing in the famous Qutb complex. According to the traditional belief, anyone who can encircle the entire column with their arms, with their back towards the pillar, can have their wish granted. Because of the corrosive qualities of sweat the government has built a fence around it for safety.

Maastricht - Market Place

Maastricht - Market Place, originally uploaded by werkunz1.

• Perhaps one of the best (free) sights of Maastricht is simply to admire the two town squares in the centre of the city; The Vrijthof, which features the massive St Servaas Church and St Jan's Cathedral; and The Markt, which features the Town Hall (Stadhuis) and on Wednesdays and Saturdays, markets.
• The Vrijthof regularly hosts large festivals at various times throughout the year, including autumn and winter festivals. The Carnaval before Lent is an amazing occasion where (it seems) the whole city dresses up in costume and parties until the early hours. It really has to be seen to be believed, this is a North European Mardi Gras, hence colder and darker than its American cousin.

• Civic Buildings

  • City Library Plein 1992
  • University Maastricht Library, Grote Looierstraat 17 (centre) & Universiteitssingel 50 (Randwyck)
  • The Stadhuis (Town Hall) in the Markt (City Centre)

  • Museums

    • Bonnefantenmuseum, Avenue Céramique 250, ☎ +31 (43) 329 01 90 (info@bonnefanten.nl, fax: +31 (43) 329 01 99). Tue-Sun: 11.00 am - 5.00 pm; Mon: closed, except on public holidays. The museum is the foremost museum of Old Masters and contemporary art in the province of Limburg. The contemporary art collection contains works by an international group of artists. In addition to contemporary paintings, the collection also includes projections and gallery-sized installations. The collection of Old Masters emphasises on 16th and 17th century Flemish paintings, including major works by Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck and Jacob Jordaens. In addition, the collection comprises magnificent medieval sculptures by Jan van Steffenswert, early Italian paintings and a presentation of Maastricht silver. Adult: €7.50; child 13-18: €3.50; child under 13: free entry.
    • Centre Céramique, Avenue Céramique 50, ☎ +31 (43) 350 56 00 (mail@sbm.nl, fax: +31 (43) 350 55 99). Tue and Thu: 10.30 am - 8.30 pm; Wed, Fri, Sun: 10.30 am - 5.00 pm.
    • Derlon Museum Cellar, Plankstraat 21, ☎ +31 (43) 325 21 21. Sun: 12.00 am - 4.00 pm. The museum is not wheelchair accessible. Before the restoration of the Derlon Hotel started, Maastricht's city archeologists undertook an extensive survey of the site. The Roman finds, from the 2nd, 3rd and 4th century, are considered that important that it was decided to conserve them and exhibit these to interested parties. The following can be seen in the cellar of Derlon Hotel: part of a 2nd and 3rd century square, a 3rd century well, part of a pre- Roman cobblestone road and sections of a wall and a gate dating from the 4th century. Free entry.
    • Natuurhistorisch Museum, De Bosquetplein 7, ☎ +31 (43) 350 54 90 (mail@nhmmaastricht.nl, fax: +31 (43) 350 54 75). Mon-Fri: 10.00 am - 5.00 pm; Sat-Sun: 2.00 pm - 5.00 pm. The museum outlines the natural history of southern Limburg. Modern displays offer an insight into both the recent and distant past. Among the museum's highlights are the remains of enormous Mosasauriers and Giant Turtles found in marlstone at the St Pietersberg caverns. Fossils of all shapes and sizes show how South Limburg has changed in the course of the last 300 million years. Adult: €4.50; child 4-11: €3.00; child under 4: free entry.
    • Spaans Gouvernement, Vrijthof 18, ☎ +31 (43) 321 13 27 (info@museumspaansgouvernement.nl). Wed-Sun: 1.00 pm - 5.00 pm. The museum contains period rooms with mainly 17th and 18th century furnishings, including furniture, silver, porcelain and pottery, glassware and paintings. Two of the rooms have been decorated in the mid-18th century Liège-Maastricht Regence Style. Adult: €3.00 (exposition: €4.00); child under 16: free entry.

    • Tourist Attractions

      

      

      Saturday Flea Market in Maastricht
      • The Caves - a local Marlestone mine, tours given in Dutch
      • Coffeeshops (eg. Mississippi on the Wilhelminakade, at the Maas quai)
      • 'Regular' shopping centre, known for its exclusivity.
      
      
      Maastricht is the southernmost city in the Netherlands, and is the capital of the province of Limburg. Situated within walking distance of Belgium and cycling distance of Germany, it claims to be the oldest city in the Netherlands (a claim it shares with Nijmegen). A great place to spend some time, it contains some magnificent buildings and culture, taking the form of plenty of old houses and buildings, lovely cathedrals and a spectacularly cobblestoned town centre. The city is also well known for its fine cuisine, excellent shops and multicultural atmosphere.

"A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step." -- Lao Tzu
Copyright © Demetrios the Traveler





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Athens, Greece wildfires

"A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step." -- Lao Tzu
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Seven Exposures of Singapore

Seven Exposures of Singapore (#59/365), originally uploaded by Jim Boud (back home and catching up).

Island country, Southeast Asia.

Situated off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, it comprises Singapore island and 60 islets. Area: 269 sq mi (697 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 4,291,000. Capital: Singapore. Three-fourths of the people are of Chinese ethnicity; most of the rest are Malays and Indians. Languages: English, Chinese (Mandarin), Malay, Tamil (all official). Religions: Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Daoism, Hinduism. Currency: Singapore dollar. Nearly two-thirds of the island’s hilly landscape lies below 50 ft (15 m) above sea level. It has a hot, humid climate. Although only about 2% of its land is arable, it is highly productive cropland. The economy is based largely on international trade and finance; there are more than 100 commercial banks, most of which are foreign, and the headquarters of the Asian Dollar Market is located there. The port is one of the largest in the world, and the country is one of the world’s leading petroleum refiners. Manufacturing (notably electronic equipment) is also important. Singapore is a republic with one legislative house; its chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. Long inhabited by fishermen and pirates, it was an outpost of the Sumatran empire of Shrivijaya until the 14th century, when it passed to Java and then Ayutthaya (Siam). It became part of the Malacca empire in the 15th century. In the 16th century the Portuguese controlled the area; they were followed by the Dutch in the 17th century. In 1819 it was ceded to the British East India Company, becoming part of the Straits Settlements and the centre of British colonial activity in Southeast Asia. During World War II the Japanese occupied the island (1942–45). In 1946 it became a crown colony. It achieved full internal self-government in 1959, became part of Malaysia in 1963, and gained independence in 1965. Singapore is influential in the affairs of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The country’s dominant voice in politics for 30 years after independence was Lee Kuan Yew. Singapore has become a regional economic powerhouse.

city-state located at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, about 85 miles (137 kilometres) north of the Equator. It consists of the diamond-shaped Singapore Island and some 60 small islets; the main island occupies all but about 18 square miles of this combined area. The main island is separated from Peninsular Malaysia to the north by Johor Strait, a narrow channel crossed by a road and rail causeway that is more than half a mile long. The southern limits of the state run through Singapore Strait, where outliers of the Riau-Lingga Archipelago—which forms a part of Indonesia—extend to within 10 miles of the main island.

Singapore is the largest port in Southeast Asia and one of the busiest in the world. It owes its growth and prosperity to its focal position at the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, where it dominates the Strait of Malacca, which connects the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea. Once a British colony and now a member of the Commonwealth, Singapore first joined the Federation of Malaysia on its formation in 1963 but seceded to become an independent state on Aug. 9, 1965.

The land » Relief

Nearly two-thirds of the main island is less than 50 feet (15 metres) above sea level. Timah Hill, the highest summit, has an elevation of only 531 feet (162 metres); with other peaks, such as Panjang and Mandai hills, it forms a block of rugged terrain in the centre of the island. To the west and south are lower scarps with marked northwest-southeast trends, such as Mount Faber. The eastern part of the island is a low plateau cut by erosion into an intricate pattern of hills and valleys. These physical units reflect their geologic foundations: the central hills are formed from granite rocks, the scarp lands from highly folded and faulted sedimentary rocks, and the eastern plateau from uncompacted sands and gravels.

The people » Ethnolinguistic composition

The population of Singapore is diverse, the result of considerable past immigration. Chinese predominate, making up more than three-fourths of the total. Malays are the next largestethnic group, and Indians the third. None of these three major communities is homogeneous. Among the Chinese, more than two-fifths originate from Fukien province and speak the Amoy dialect, about one-fourth are Teochew from the city of Swatow in Kwangtung province, and a smaller number are from other parts of Kwangtung. The Chinese community as a whole, therefore, speaks mutually incomprehensible dialects. Linguistic differences are less pronounced among the Malays, but the group includes Indonesians speaking Javanese, Boyanese, and other dialects. The Indian group is most diverse, consisting of Tamils (more than half), Malayalis, and Sikhs; it also includes Pakistani and Sinhalese communities.

Because of this ethnic diversity, no fewer than four official languages are recognized—English, Mandarin Chinese, Malay, and Tamil. English remains the main medium for administration, commerce, and industry, and it is the primary language of instruction in schools. Mandarin, the official language of China, transcends dialect barriers, and its use is strongly promoted; one-third of the school population is taught in that language. Malay, like English, is widely used for communication among ethnic groups and plays a particularly useful role in view of the close ties between Singapore and Malaysia.

History

Singapore Island originally was inhabited by fishermen and pirates, and it served as an outpost for the Sumatran empire of Śrīvijaya. In Javanese inscriptions and Chinese records dating to the end of the 14th century, the more common name of the island is Tumasik, or Temasek, from the Javanese word tasek (“sea”). Rājendra, ruler of the southern Indian Coḷa kingdom, attacked the island in 1025, and there was another Coḷa raid in 1068. In 1275 the Javanese king Kertanagara probably attacked Temasek when he raided Pahang on the east coast of the peninsula. According to a Chinese traveler, Wang Ta-yuan, just before 1349 about 70 Tai war boats besieged Temasek for a month but had to withdraw. The Javanese epic poem Nāgarakeṛtāgama (written 1365) includes Temasek among the conquests of the Javanese empire of Majapahit. At the end of the 14th century, Temasek fell into decay and was supplanted by Malacca (now Melaka). Yet in 1552 it was still a port of call from which St. Francis Xavier dispatched letters to Goa, and João de Barros described its busy shipping activity in his history Décadas da Ásia (1552–1615).

Rājendra may have named the city Singapura (“Lion City”), later corrupted to Singapore, or the name may have been bestowed in the 14th century by Buddhist monks, to whom the lion was a symbolic character. According to the Sejarah Melayu, a Malay chronicle, the city was founded by the Śrīvijayan prince Sri Tri Buana; he is said to have glimpsed a tiger, mistaken it for a lion, and thus called the settlement Singapura.

East India Company

In January 1819 Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles of the English East India Company, searching for a trading site, forestalled by the Dutch at Riau, and finding the Carimon (Karimun) Islands unsuitable, landed at Singapore. He found only a few Chinese planters, some aborigines, and a few Malays and was told by the hereditary chief, the temenggong (direct ancestor of the sultans of modern Johor), that the company could purchase land. The temenggong, however, was a subordinate of his cousin Abdul Rahman, sultan of Riau-Johor, who was under Dutch surveillance. Furthermore, Abdul Rahman was a younger son and not a sultan de jure. Raffles, disobeying instructions not to offend the Dutch, withdrew his own recognition of Abdul Rahman’s suzerainty over Singapore and installed Abdul Rahman’s elder brother, Hussein (Husain), to validate the purchase of land there on behalf of the company. The Dutch protested. In London the court of directors, though it decided Raffles had contravened instructions, took no action.

In 1824 an Anglo-Dutch treaty left Malaya and Singapore in the British sphere, and in August the whole of Singapore Island was ceded to the British for a monetary payment. Two years later Singapore, Penang, and Malacca (Melaka) were combined as the Straits Settlements to form an outlying residency of India. In 1830 they were reduced to a residency under Bengal, and two years later Singapore became their capital. When the East India Company lost its monopoly of the China trade (1833), it also lost its interest in Malaya. The settlements were transferred to the direct control of the governor-general of India in 1851. In 1867 they were made a crown colony under the Colonial Office in London.